Ask a pilot how many V-speeds exist, and you’ll get an answer anywhere between “What’s a V-speed?” and “Probably a thousand.”

I’m happy to report that there aren’t a thousand, but there are a few you should be aware of.

In this article, we’ll explain everything you need to know about V-speeds. Plus, we’ve created a handy list so that you never have to Google them again.

What Are V-Speeds?

V-speeds are specific airspeeds that are defined for operational reasons, such as limitations (e.g., maximum flaps extended speed – V_FE) or performance requirements (e.g., best rate of climb speed – V_Y).

In other words, V-speeds serve as critical benchmarks that guide pilots in managing the aircraft’s performance and ensuring safety.

For example, the rotation speed (V_R) is the speed at which the pilot initiates a gentle rotation of the aircraft to lift off the ground during takeoff. 

A V-speed may change depending on factors such as aircraft weight and weather conditions, but its designation (e.g., V_R) remains the same.

You may find several V-speeds on the internet that aren’t listed here. That’s because the V-speeds we’re talking about today are defined in 14 CFR Part 1, as well as 14 CFR Part 23 and Part 25 (used for aircraft certification).

Any other V-speeds you encounter are likely manufacturer-specific and aren’t regarded as official V-speeds by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Mach Numbers and V-Speeds

You may find V-speeds with an “M” instead of the usual “V” (M_MO instead of V_MO, for example).

This means that the particular speed is defined using a Mach number.

V-speeds can be defined using any type of airspeed, such as knots or miles per hour, but the designation remains “V” unless a Mach number is used – then it becomes “M”.

V-Speeds List

V-Speed	Description
VA	Design maneuvering speed.
VB	Design speed for maximum gust intensity.
VC	Design cruising speed.
VD	Design diving speed.
VDF	Demonstrated flight diving speed.
VEF	Speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.
VF	Design flap speed.
VFC	Maximum speed for stability characteristics.
VFE	Maximum flap extended speed.
VFTO	Final takeoff speed.
VH	Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power.
VLE	Maximum landing gear extended speed.
VLO	Maximum landing gear operating speed.
VLOF	Lift-off speed.
VMC	Minimum control airspeed with the critical engine inoperative.
VMO	Maximum operating limit speed.
VMU	Minimum unstick speed.
VNE	Never-exceed speed.
VNO	Maximum structural cruising speed.
VR	Rotation speed.
VREF	Reference landing speed.
VS	Stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable.
VS0	Stall speed in the landing configuration.
VS1	Stall speed in a specific configuration (e.g., ‘clean’ configuration).
VSR	Reference stall speed.
VSR0	Reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSR1	Reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
VSW	Speed at which onset of natural or artificial stall warning occurs.
VTOSS	Takeoff safety speed for Category A aircraft.
VX	Speed for best angle of climb.
VY	Speed for best rate of climb.
V1	Takeoff decision speed.
V2	Takeoff safety speed.
V2min	Minimum takeoff safety speed.

Most Important V-Speeds Explained

Let’s take a look at the V-speeds you’re most likely to encounter – and the ones you should know.

As we go through them, use the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) for the airplane you fly, and make a note of the speed for each V-speed. If it isn’t defined in the POH or is variable, make sure you know how to calculate it.

You’ll make your life a whole lot easier if you take the time to memorize them.

V_R: Rotation Speed 

V_R is the speed at which the pilot gently pulls back on the control column to lift the nose off of the runway during takeoff.

For most commercial aircraft, V_R varies for each takeoff depending on the weight and configuration of the aircraft as well as environmental factors like weather or runway conditions.

In most General Aviation (GA) aircraft, V_R is usually the same regardless of conditions.

It might seem obvious, but V_R cannot be less than the stall speed (VS₁ – more on that later).

V_X: Best Angle of Climb Speed 

V_X is the airspeed that provides the best angle of climb. In other words, if you maintain V_X, you’ll gain the most altitude in the shortest horizontal distance.

This speed is your go-to for a short-field takeoff, particularly when there are obstacles that you need to climb above during takeoff.

You should practice climbing at V_X (and short-field takeoffs) regularly, as it is a critical skill during short-field operations.

V_Y: Best Rate of Climb Speed

V_Y is the airspeed for best rate of climb. In other words, if you maintain V_Y, you’ll gain the most altitude in the shortest amount of time.

Compared to V_X, you’ll use more horizontal distance.

V_Y is the speed typically used during climb.

V_A: Maneuvering Speed

V_A is the aircraft’s design maneuvering speed. It is the speed above which you risk damaging the aircraft’s structure if you make a full deflection of a flight control (e.g., full-up elevator). 

If you make a full deflection of a flight control at or below V_A, the aircraft will stall before the structure is damaged.

You should not use full deflection of any flight control above V_A. That being said, repeated full deflection of any flight controls (such as full right rudder and then full left rudder, for example) is not recommended, even below V_A.

V_A isn’t a fixed figure; it varies with weight. If the aircraft’s weight decreases, V_A decreases as well, and vice versa.

V_FE: Maximum Flaps Extended Speed

V_FE, or maximum flap extended speed, is the highest speed permissible with the flaps extended. 

This speed is your boundary marker when flying with flaps down, ensuring you don’t cause potential structural damage.

Not all aircraft treat V_FE as a singular speed regardless of flap setting. Most aircraft, like the Cessna 172, have different V_FE speeds for different flap settings.

In the Cessna 172, you can fly with 10 degrees of flaps below 110 knots. Anything more than 10 degrees of flaps, and you’re limited to 85 knots instead.

V_LE: Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed

V_LE, or maximum landing gear extended speed, is the top speed at which you can safely fly with the landing gear extended.

A related speed is V_LO, or maximum landing gear operating speed, the speed above which you cannot extend or retract the landing gear. 

V_LO is typically lower than V_LE due to the aerodynamic forces exerted on the landing gear during extension or retraction.

V_NE: Never Exceed Speed

V_NE, or “never exceed” speed, is exactly that. The speed above which you should never venture under any circumstances.

V_NO: Maximum Structural Cruising Speed

V_NO, the maximum structural cruising speed, is the highest speed that you can safely fly in smooth air. 

V_NO is marked by the upper limit of the green arc on the airspeed indicator. 

If you’re above V_NO (in the yellow arc or “caution range”) and you encounter air that is not smooth, you could cause damage to the aircraft.

For example, if you encounter turbulence, the “bumps” you experience will increase the load factor. If you fly above V_NO in these conditions, the increase in load factor could damage the aircraft’s structure.

V_S: Stall Speed

V_S represents stall speed, essentially the lowest speed your aircraft can maintain steady flight.

When it comes to V_S, there’s an important caveat.

An aircraft can stall at any speed. 

A stall occurs when the aircraft exceeds the critical angle of attack. This can happen at any airspeed. 

Say a pilot is descending at a high airspeed, far from V_S. If they quickly pitch up, the aircraft may exceed the critical angle of attack and stall, despite being at a high airspeed.

So, why do we define V_S?

Well, in a “normal” attitude (think straight-and-level), the aircraft is only at risk of stalling if:

1. The pilot makes a dramatic control input that quickly increases the angle of attack, or
2. The pilot maintains altitude while the airspeed decreases, gradually increasing the angle of attack and eventually stalling at VS.

So, can the aircraft stall at any airspeed? Yes.

When is it most likely to stall? At V_S.

The V-speed for stall speed is divided into two types:

1. V_S0 – the stall speed in the landing configuration (e.g., flaps and gear down)
2. V_S1 – the stall speed in a specific configuration (e.g., ‘clean’ – flaps and gear up)

The difference between the stall speed with the flaps down versus the flaps up is significant, so it makes sense to differentiate between the two.

One final note about V_S.

Every manufacturer determines the stall speed for their aircraft. The test for stall speed is performed with the throttle closed at maximum takeoff weight.

This means that you may experience a lower stall speed than published in the POH if you’re flying at a lower weight or the throttle isn’t closed.

For more information on stall speed testing regulations, see AC 23-8C, § 23.49, page 15.

V₁: Takeoff Decision Speed

V₁, or the takeoff decision speed, is the speed by which the decision to continue the takeoff or abort must be made.

The primary purpose of V₁ is to serve as a decision point. If a critical system fails (such as an engine) or other anomalies occur before reaching V₁, there will be sufficient runway remaining to abort the takeoff safely. 

However, once V₁ is surpassed, the takeoff should continue, as there will not be enough runway left to stop safely.

V₁ is not a fixed number and is calculated before each takeoff, taking into account several factors, including aircraft weight, runway length, environmental conditions, and aircraft performance data.

V₁ is where the pilot must take the first action (such as reducing thrust) to stop the aircraft, or risk a runway overrun.

It’s important to note that V₁ also relates to the aircraft’s performance capability in case of an engine failure. After V₁, the aircraft must have the performance capability to continue the takeoff on the remaining engines and achieve the required climb performance.

That’s where V₂, or takeoff safety speed, comes into play.

V₂: Takeoff Safety Speed

V₂, known as the takeoff safety speed, is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain a specified rate of climb with one engine inoperative.

The primary goal of V₂ is to ensure a safe climb gradient in an engine failure scenario. This speed ensures that the aircraft can maintain a positive rate of climb to clear obstacles and reach a safer altitude.

The aircraft must be able to achieve V₂ at a minimum of 35 ft above the end of the runway distance after an engine failure at V₁.

V_EF: Critical Engine Failure Speed During Takeoff

V_EF is the worst possible speed the critical engine can fail while allowing the takeoff to be completed successfully. 

Interestingly, it is not at V₁, but actually before.

This may sound strange, because we should abort the takeoff if an engine failure occurs before V₁, right? 

Well, regulations state that takeoff performance calculations should account for an engine failure that is close enough to V₁ that the pilot does not have enough time to abort at V₁.

In other words, if the engine fails right before V₁ without enough time to react, the aircraft must be able to take off safely and achieve V₂ at the specified height and distance.

V_MC: Minimum Control Speed

V_MC, or minimum control speed, represents the lowest speed at which a multi-engine aircraft can maintain controlled flight with one engine inoperative and the other at full power.

V_EF may not be less than V_MC, and V_2min may not be less than 1.1 times V_MC.

V_MC is often divided into two distinct speeds: V_MCA and V_MCG, each addressing a different aspect of aircraft control under asymmetric thrust conditions.

V_MCA: Minimum Control Speed Air

V_MCA is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain controlled flight in the air with one engine failed and the other at full power.

Below V_MCA, the aircraft may become uncontrollable due to the loss of directional control, making it a critical speed to be aware of during flight operations.

V_MCG: Minimum Control Speed Ground

V_MCG, on the other hand, is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can maintain directional control on the ground with one engine inoperative and the other at full power. 

It’s a vital speed to know during the takeoff roll, ensuring that control can be maintained if an engine fails during takeoff.